Когда появились мобильные телефоны в сша

For the modern mobile phone, see Smartphone.

A mobile phone^[a] is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, multimedia messagIng, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.^[1]

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City in 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs).^[2] In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world’s first cellular network in Japan.^[3] In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.^[4] In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales.^[5] For feature phones (slang: «dumbphones») as of 2016, the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.^[6]

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology.^[7] The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places, for example in the UK the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.^[8] Today mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,^[9] and in almost half the world’s countries, over 90% of the population own at least one.^[10]

History

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a «pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone». Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive «generations», starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System’s Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell^[11][12] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing 2 kilograms (4.4 lb).^[2] The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.^[13] Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT («Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications», European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard.^[14] In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.^[15] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media.^[16] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Types

Smartphone

Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features. The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.

Feature phone

Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user’s wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone, which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging.^[18][19] Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.

Infrastructure

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into ‘cells’. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year’s Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.

Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not «touching» and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.^{[citation needed]}

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

As a phone moves around, a phone will «hand off» — automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

Hardware

The common components found on all mobile phones are:

• A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
• A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
• An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
• A display which echoes the user’s typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
• Speakers for sound.
• Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
• A hardware notification LED on some phones

Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.

Central processing unit

Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.

Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz)^[20] but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.

Display

One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device’s type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device’s front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.

Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 90 millimetres (3.5 in). Phones with screens larger than 130 millimetres (5.2 in) are often called «phablets.» Smartphones with screens over 115 millimetres (4.5 in) in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and «edge-to-edge» designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.^[21][22][23]

Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung,^[24] and Apple’s «3D Touch» system.

Sound

In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls.^[25][26] Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi.^[27] Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.

Battery

The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used.^[28] It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.^[29][30]

SIM card

Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the K_i used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.^{[citation needed]}

A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets,^[31] and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.

When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.^[32]

Software

Software platforms

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)

Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.

Mobile app

A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term «app» is a shortening of the term «software application».

Messaging

A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000,^[33] and subsequently many organizations provided «on-demand» and «instant» news services by SMS. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.^[34]

Application stores

The introduction of Apple’s App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google’s Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM’s BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.^[35]

Sales

By manufacturer

Market share of top-five worldwide mobile phone vendors, Q2 2022

Rank	Manufacturer	Strategy Analytics report[36]
1	Samsung	21%
2	Apple	16%
3	Xiaomi	13%
4	Oppo	10%
5	Vivo	9%
	Others	31%
Note: Vendor shipments are branded shipments and exclude OEM sales for all vendors.

As of 2022, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (21%), Apple (16%), Xiaomi (13%), Oppo (10%), and Vivo (9%).^[37]

History

From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012.^[38] In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia’s 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.

Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, to where most technical innovation had shifted.^[39][40] Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.^[39]

By mobile phone operator

The world’s largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers as of June 2018.^[41] Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009.^[42] In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.

Use

Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans. For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.

The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society. For example:

• A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.^[43]
• Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.^[44]
• The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.^[45]
• Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
• The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.^[46]
• In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events. This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
• The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV.^[47] It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
• In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part.^[48] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.^[49]

Content distribution

In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.^{[citation needed]}

Mobile banking and payment

In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya’s M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.

Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.^[50]

Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country’s first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.^{[citation needed]}

Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC).^[51] Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.^[52][53]

Mobile tracking

Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.^[54][55]

The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.^[54]

China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.^[56] In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations.^[57]

Hackers have been able to track a phone’s location, read messages, and record calls, through obtaining a subscribers phone number.^[58]

While driving

Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a U.S. insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.^[59] Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France and in many U.S. states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.

A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.^[60]
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.^[61]

Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone’s incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.

A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety.^[62] In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.^[63] A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.^[64]

Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.^[65] This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.^[66] Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law.^[67] As of July 2010, 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.^[68]

Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.^[69]

In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones.^[70][71]

Health effects

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent^[when?] interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans. The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk,^[72][73] classifying mobile phone radiation as «possibly carcinogenic to humans» after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety.^[74] The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.^[75][76]

Some recent^[when?] studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years «approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same (‘ipsilateral’) side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use».^[77]

One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a «40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)».^[78] This is a reversal of the study’s prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects.^[73][79] However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use.^[80] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties.^[81] Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.^[82]

In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the U.S. government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.^[83][84]

Educational impact

A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils’ academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.^[85]

Electronic waste regulation

Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.^[86]

The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months,^[87] and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste. Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.^[88]

Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.^[89]

Theft

According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone.^{[citation needed]} Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones.^{[citation needed]} An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers.^[90] On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a «kill switch» on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.^[91]

All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry.^[92] Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there,^[93] another involves altering the phone’s IMEI number.^[94] Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.

Conflict minerals

Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives.^[95] In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: «In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry.»^[96] The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.^{[citation needed]}

Kosher phones

Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to «immodest» communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of «Kosher» phones with no texting capabilities. Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.^[97]

In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.^[98]

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• «How Cell Phones Work» at HowStuffWorks
• «The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone», 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
• Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world—a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

For the modern mobile phone, see Smartphone.

A mobile phone^[a] is a portable telephone that can make and receive calls over a radio frequency link while the user is moving within a telephone service area. The radio frequency link establishes a connection to the switching systems of a mobile phone operator, which provides access to the public switched telephone network (PSTN). Modern mobile telephone services use a cellular network architecture and, therefore, mobile telephones are called cellular telephones or cell phones in North America. In addition to telephony, digital mobile phones (2G) support a variety of other services, such as text messaging, multimedia messagIng, email, Internet access, short-range wireless communications (infrared, Bluetooth), business applications, video games and digital photography. Mobile phones offering only those capabilities are known as feature phones; mobile phones which offer greatly advanced computing capabilities are referred to as smartphones.^[1]

The first handheld mobile phone was demonstrated by Martin Cooper of Motorola in New York City in 1973, using a handset weighing c. 2 kilograms (4.4 lbs).^[2] In 1979, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) launched the world’s first cellular network in Japan.^[3] In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone. From 1983 to 2014, worldwide mobile phone subscriptions grew to over seven billion; enough to provide one for every person on Earth.^[4] In the first quarter of 2016, the top smartphone developers worldwide were Samsung, Apple and Huawei; smartphone sales represented 78 percent of total mobile phone sales.^[5] For feature phones (slang: «dumbphones») as of 2016, the top-selling brands were Samsung, Nokia and Alcatel.^[6]

Mobile phones are considered an important human invention as it has been one of the most widely used and sold pieces of consumer technology.^[7] The growth in popularity has been rapid in some places, for example in the UK the total number of mobile phones overtook the number of houses in 1999.^[8] Today mobile phones are globally ubiquitous,^[9] and in almost half the world’s countries, over 90% of the population own at least one.^[10]

History

A handheld mobile radio telephone service was envisioned in the early stages of radio engineering. In 1917, Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt filed a patent for a «pocket-size folding telephone with a very thin carbon microphone». Early predecessors of cellular phones included analog radio communications from ships and trains. The race to create truly portable telephone devices began after World War II, with developments taking place in many countries. The advances in mobile telephony have been traced in successive «generations», starting with the early zeroth-generation (0G) services, such as Bell System’s Mobile Telephone Service and its successor, the Improved Mobile Telephone Service. These 0G systems were not cellular, supported few simultaneous calls, and were very expensive.

The first handheld cellular mobile phone was demonstrated by John F. Mitchell^[11][12] and Martin Cooper of Motorola in 1973, using a handset weighing 2 kilograms (4.4 lb).^[2] The first commercial automated cellular network (1G) analog was launched in Japan by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone in 1979. This was followed in 1981 by the simultaneous launch of the Nordic Mobile Telephone (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.^[13] Several other countries then followed in the early to mid-1980s. These first-generation (1G) systems could support far more simultaneous calls but still used analog cellular technology. In 1983, the DynaTAC 8000x was the first commercially available handheld mobile phone.

In 1991, the second-generation (2G) digital cellular technology was launched in Finland by Radiolinja on the GSM standard. This sparked competition in the sector as the new operators challenged the incumbent 1G network operators. The GSM standard is a European initiative expressed at the CEPT («Conférence Européenne des Postes et Telecommunications», European Postal and Telecommunications conference). The Franco-German R&D cooperation demonstrated the technical feasibility, and in 1987 a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between 13 European countries who agreed to launch a commercial service by 1991. The first version of the GSM (=2G) standard had 6,000 pages. The IEEE and RSE awarded to Thomas Haug and Philippe Dupuis the 2018 James Clerk Maxwell medal for their contributions to the first digital mobile telephone standard.^[14] In 2018, the GSM was used by over 5 billion people in over 220 countries. The GSM (2G) has evolved into 3G, 4G and 5G. The standardisation body for GSM started at the CEPT Working Group GSM (Group Special Mobile) in 1982 under the umbrella of CEPT. In 1988, ETSI was established and all CEPT standardization activities were transferred to ETSI. Working Group GSM became Technical Committee GSM. In 1991, it became Technical Committee SMG (Special Mobile Group) when ETSI tasked the committee with UMTS (3G).

In 2001, the third generation (3G) was launched in Japan by NTT DoCoMo on the WCDMA standard.^[15] This was followed by 3.5G, 3G+ or turbo 3G enhancements based on the high-speed packet access (HSPA) family, allowing UMTS networks to have higher data transfer speeds and capacity.

By 2009, it had become clear that, at some point, 3G networks would be overwhelmed by the growth of bandwidth-intensive applications, such as streaming media.^[16] Consequently, the industry began looking to data-optimized fourth-generation technologies, with the promise of speed improvements up to ten-fold over existing 3G technologies. The first two commercially available technologies billed as 4G were the WiMAX standard, offered in North America by Sprint, and the LTE standard, first offered in Scandinavia by TeliaSonera.

5G is a technology and term used in research papers and projects to denote the next major phase in mobile telecommunication standards beyond the 4G/IMT-Advanced standards. The term 5G is not officially used in any specification or official document yet made public by telecommunication companies or standardization bodies such as 3GPP, WiMAX Forum or ITU-R. New standards beyond 4G are currently being developed by standardization bodies, but they are at this time seen as under the 4G umbrella, not for a new mobile generation.

Types

Smartphone

Smartphones have a number of distinguishing features. The International Telecommunication Union measures those with Internet connection, which it calls Active Mobile-Broadband subscriptions (which includes tablets, etc.). In the developed world, smartphones have now overtaken the usage of earlier mobile systems. However, in the developing world, they account for around 50% of mobile telephony.

Feature phone

Feature phone is a term typically used as a retronym to describe mobile phones which are limited in capabilities in contrast to a modern smartphone. Feature phones typically provide voice calling and text messaging functionality, in addition to basic multimedia and Internet capabilities, and other services offered by the user’s wireless service provider. A feature phone has additional functions over and above a basic mobile phone, which is only capable of voice calling and text messaging.^[18][19] Feature phones and basic mobile phones tend to use a proprietary, custom-designed software and user interface. By contrast, smartphones generally use a mobile operating system that often shares common traits across devices.

Infrastructure

Mobile phones communicate with cell towers that are placed to give coverage across a telephone service area, which is divided up into ‘cells’. Each cell uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, and will typically be covered by three towers placed at different locations. The cell towers are usually interconnected to each other and the phone network and the internet by wired connections. Due to bandwidth limitations each cell will have a maximum number of cell phones it can handle at once. The cells are therefore sized depending on the expected usage density, and may be much smaller in cities. In that case much lower transmitter powers are used to avoid broadcasting beyond the cell.

In order to handle the high traffic, multiple towers can be set up in the same area (using different frequencies). This can be done permanently or temporarily such as at special events like at the Super Bowl, Taste of Chicago, State Fair, NYC New Year’s Eve, hurricane hit cities, etc. where cell phone companies will bring a truck with equipment to host the abnormally high traffic with a portable cell.

Cellular can greatly increase the capacity of simultaneous wireless phone calls. While a phone company for example, has a license to 1,000 frequencies, each cell must use unique frequencies with each call using one of them when communicating. Because cells only slightly overlap, the same frequency can be reused. Example cell one uses frequency 1–500, next door cell uses frequency 501–1,000, next door can reuse frequency 1–500. Cells one and three are not «touching» and do not overlap/communicate so each can reuse the same frequencies.^{[citation needed]}

Capacity was further increased when phone companies implemented digital networks. With digital, one frequency can host multiple simultaneous calls.

As a phone moves around, a phone will «hand off» — automatically disconnect and reconnect to the tower of another cell that gives the best reception.

Additionally, short-range Wi-Fi infrastructure is often used by smartphones as much as possible as it offloads traffic from cell networks on to local area networks.

Hardware

The common components found on all mobile phones are:

• A central processing unit (CPU), the processor of phones. The CPU is a microprocessor fabricated on a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) chip.
• A battery, providing the power source for the phone functions. A modern handset typically uses a lithium-ion battery (LIB), whereas older handsets used nickel–metal hydride (Ni–MH) batteries.
• An input mechanism to allow the user to interact with the phone. These are a keypad for feature phones, and touch screens for most smartphones (typically with capacitive sensing).
• A display which echoes the user’s typing, and displays text messages, contacts, and more. The display is typically either a liquid-crystal display (LCD) or organic light-emitting diode (OLED) display.
• Speakers for sound.
• Subscriber identity module (SIM) cards and removable user identity module (R-UIM) cards.
• A hardware notification LED on some phones

Low-end mobile phones are often referred to as feature phones and offer basic telephony. Handsets with more advanced computing ability through the use of native software applications are known as smartphones.

Central processing unit

Mobile phones have central processing units (CPUs), similar to those in computers, but optimised to operate in low power environments.

Mobile CPU performance depends not only on the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz)^[20] but also the memory hierarchy also greatly affects overall performance. Because of these problems, the performance of mobile phone CPUs is often more appropriately given by scores derived from various standardized tests to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.

Display

One of the main characteristics of phones is the screen. Depending on the device’s type and design, the screen fills most or nearly all of the space on a device’s front surface. Many smartphone displays have an aspect ratio of 16:9, but taller aspect ratios became more common in 2017.

Screen sizes are often measured in diagonal inches or millimeters; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 90 millimetres (3.5 in). Phones with screens larger than 130 millimetres (5.2 in) are often called «phablets.» Smartphones with screens over 115 millimetres (4.5 in) in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and «edge-to-edge» designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.^[21][22][23]

Liquid-crystal displays are the most common; others are IPS, LED, OLED, and AMOLED displays. Some displays are integrated with pressure-sensitive digitizers, such as those developed by Wacom and Samsung,^[24] and Apple’s «3D Touch» system.

Sound

In sound, smartphones and feature phones vary little. Some audio-quality enhancing features, such as Voice over LTE and HD Voice, have appeared and are often available on newer smartphones. Sound quality can remain a problem due to the design of the phone, the quality of the cellular network and compression algorithms used in long-distance calls.^[25][26] Audio quality can be improved using a VoIP application over WiFi.^[27] Cellphones have small speakers so that the user can use a speakerphone feature and talk to a person on the phone without holding it to their ear. The small speakers can also be used to listen to digital audio files of music or speech or watch videos with an audio component, without holding the phone close to the ear.

Battery

The average phone battery lasts 2–3 years at best. Many of the wireless devices use a Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery, which charges 500–2500 times, depending on how users take care of the battery and the charging techniques used.^[28] It is only natural for these rechargeable batteries to chemically age, which is why the performance of the battery when used for a year or two will begin to deteriorate. Battery life can be extended by draining it regularly, not overcharging it, and keeping it away from heat.^[29][30]

SIM card

Mobile phones require a small microchip called a Subscriber Identity Module or SIM card, in order to function. The SIM card is approximately the size of a small postage stamp and is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit. The SIM securely stores the service-subscriber key (IMSI) and the K_i used to identify and authenticate the user of the mobile phone. The SIM card allows users to change phones by simply removing the SIM card from one mobile phone and inserting it into another mobile phone or broadband telephony device, provided that this is not prevented by a SIM lock. The first SIM card was made in 1991 by Munich smart card maker Giesecke & Devrient for the Finnish wireless network operator Radiolinja.^{[citation needed]}

A hybrid mobile phone can hold up to four SIM cards, with a phone having a different device identifier for each SIM Card. SIM and R-UIM cards may be mixed together to allow both GSM and CDMA networks to be accessed. From 2010 onwards, such phones became popular in emerging markets,^[31] and this was attributed to the desire to obtain the lowest calling costs.

When the removal of a SIM card is detected by the operating system, it may deny further operation until a reboot.^[32]

Software

Software platforms

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (October 2018)

Feature phones have basic software platforms. Smartphones have advanced software platforms. Android OS has been the best-selling OS worldwide on smartphones since 2011.

Mobile app

A mobile app is a computer program designed to run on a mobile device, such as a smartphone. The term «app» is a shortening of the term «software application».

Messaging

A common data application on mobile phones is Short Message Service (SMS) text messaging. The first SMS message was sent from a computer to a mobile phone in 1992 in the UK while the first person-to-person SMS from phone to phone was sent in Finland in 1993. The first mobile news service, delivered via SMS, was launched in Finland in 2000,^[33] and subsequently many organizations provided «on-demand» and «instant» news services by SMS. Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) was introduced in March 2002.^[34]

Application stores

The introduction of Apple’s App Store for the iPhone and iPod Touch in July 2008 popularized manufacturer-hosted online distribution for third-party applications (software and computer programs) focused on a single platform. There are a huge variety of apps, including video games, music products and business tools. Up until that point, smartphone application distribution depended on third-party sources providing applications for multiple platforms, such as GetJar, Handango, Handmark, and PocketGear. Following the success of the App Store, other smartphone manufacturers launched application stores, such as Google’s Android Market (later renamed to the Google Play Store), RIM’s BlackBerry App World, or Android-related app stores like Aptoide, Cafe Bazaar, F-Droid, GetJar, and Opera Mobile Store. In February 2014, 93% of mobile developers were targeting smartphones first for mobile app development.^[35]

Sales

By manufacturer

Market share of top-five worldwide mobile phone vendors, Q2 2022

Rank	Manufacturer	Strategy Analytics report[36]
1	Samsung	21%
2	Apple	16%
3	Xiaomi	13%
4	Oppo	10%
5	Vivo	9%
	Others	31%
Note: Vendor shipments are branded shipments and exclude OEM sales for all vendors.

As of 2022, the top five manufacturers worldwide were Samsung (21%), Apple (16%), Xiaomi (13%), Oppo (10%), and Vivo (9%).^[37]

History

From 1983 to 1998, Motorola was market leader in mobile phones. Nokia was the market leader in mobile phones from 1998 to 2012.^[38] In Q1 2012, Samsung surpassed Nokia, selling 93.5 million units as against Nokia’s 82.7 million units. Samsung has retained its top position since then.

Aside from Motorola, European brands such as Nokia, Siemens and Ericsson once held large sway over the global mobile phone market, and many new technologies were pioneered in Europe. By 2010, the influence of European companies had significantly decreased due to fierce competition from American and Asian companies, to where most technical innovation had shifted.^[39][40] Apple and Google, both of the United States, also came to dominate mobile phone software.^[39]

By mobile phone operator

The world’s largest individual mobile operator by number of subscribers is China Mobile, which has over 902 million mobile phone subscribers as of June 2018.^[41] Over 50 mobile operators have over ten million subscribers each, and over 150 mobile operators had at least one million subscribers by the end of 2009.^[42] In 2014, there were more than seven billion mobile phone subscribers worldwide, a number that is expected to keep growing.

Use

Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, such as keeping in touch with family members, for conducting business, and in order to have access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some people carry more than one mobile phone for different purposes, such as for business and personal use. Multiple SIM cards may be used to take advantage of the benefits of different calling plans. For example, a particular plan might provide for cheaper local calls, long-distance calls, international calls, or roaming.

The mobile phone has been used in a variety of diverse contexts in society. For example:

• A study by Motorola found that one in ten mobile phone subscribers have a second phone that is often kept secret from other family members. These phones may be used to engage in such activities as extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings.^[43]
• Some organizations assist victims of domestic violence by providing mobile phones for use in emergencies. These are often refurbished phones.^[44]
• The advent of widespread text-messaging has resulted in the cell phone novel, the first literary genre to emerge from the cellular age, via text messaging to a website that collects the novels as a whole.^[45]
• Mobile telephony also facilitates activism and citizen journalism.
• The United Nations reported that mobile phones have spread faster than any other form of technology and can improve the livelihood of the poorest people in developing countries, by providing access to information in places where landlines or the Internet are not available, especially in the least developed countries. Use of mobile phones also spawns a wealth of micro-enterprises, by providing such work as selling airtime on the streets and repairing or refurbishing handsets.^[46]
• In Mali and other African countries, people used to travel from village to village to let friends and relatives know about weddings, births, and other events. This can now be avoided in areas with mobile phone coverage, which are usually more extensive than areas with just land-line penetration.
• The TV industry has recently started using mobile phones to drive live TV viewing through mobile apps, advertising, social TV, and mobile TV.^[47] It is estimated that 86% of Americans use their mobile phone while watching TV.
• In some parts of the world, mobile phone sharing is common. Cell phone sharing is prevalent in urban India, as families and groups of friends often share one or more mobile phones among their members. There are obvious economic benefits, but often familial customs and traditional gender roles play a part.^[48] It is common for a village to have access to only one mobile phone, perhaps owned by a teacher or missionary, which is available to all members of the village for necessary calls.^[49]

Content distribution

In 1998, one of the first examples of distributing and selling media content through the mobile phone was the sale of ringtones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon afterwards, other media content appeared, such as news, video games, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. Most early content for mobile phones tended to be copies of legacy media, such as banner advertisements or TV news highlight video clips. Recently, unique content for mobile phones has been emerging, from ringtones and ringback tones to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones.^{[citation needed]}

Mobile banking and payment

In many countries, mobile phones are used to provide mobile banking services, which may include the ability to transfer cash payments by secure SMS text message. Kenya’s M-PESA mobile banking service, for example, allows customers of the mobile phone operator Safaricom to hold cash balances which are recorded on their SIM cards. Cash can be deposited or withdrawn from M-PESA accounts at Safaricom retail outlets located throughout the country and can be transferred electronically from person to person and used to pay bills to companies.

Branchless banking has also been successful in South Africa and the Philippines. A pilot project in Bali was launched in 2011 by the International Finance Corporation and an Indonesian bank, Bank Mandiri.^[50]

Mobile payments were first trialled in Finland in 1998 when two Coca-Cola vending machines in Espoo were enabled to work with SMS payments. Eventually, the idea spread and in 1999, the Philippines launched the country’s first commercial mobile payments systems with mobile operators Globe and Smart.^{[citation needed]}

Some mobile phones can make mobile payments via direct mobile billing schemes, or through contactless payments if the phone and the point of sale support near field communication (NFC).^[51] Enabling contactless payments through NFC-equipped mobile phones requires the co-operation of manufacturers, network operators, and retail merchants.^[52][53]

Mobile tracking

Mobile phones are commonly used to collect location data. While the phone is turned on, the geographical location of a mobile phone can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not) using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the mobile phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.^[54][55]

The movements of a mobile phone user can be tracked by their service provider and, if desired, by law enforcement agencies and their governments. Both the SIM card and the handset can be tracked.^[54]

China has proposed using this technology to track the commuting patterns of Beijing city residents.^[56] In the UK and US, law enforcement and intelligence services use mobile phones to perform surveillance operations.^[57]

Hackers have been able to track a phone’s location, read messages, and record calls, through obtaining a subscribers phone number.^[58]

While driving

Mobile phone use while driving, including talking on the phone, texting, or operating other phone features, is common but controversial. It is widely considered dangerous due to distracted driving. Being distracted while operating a motor vehicle has been shown to increase the risk of accidents. In September 2010, the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) reported that 995 people were killed by drivers distracted by cell phones. In March 2011, a U.S. insurance company, State Farm Insurance, announced the results of a study which showed 19% of drivers surveyed accessed the Internet on a smartphone while driving.^[59] Many jurisdictions prohibit the use of mobile phones while driving. In Egypt, Israel, Japan, Portugal, and Singapore, both handheld and hands-free use of a mobile phone (which uses a speakerphone) is banned. In other countries, including the UK and France and in many U.S. states, only handheld phone use is banned while hands-free use is permitted.

A 2011 study reported that over 90% of college students surveyed text (initiate, reply or read) while driving.^[60]
The scientific literature on the dangers of driving while sending a text message from a mobile phone, or texting while driving, is limited. A simulation study at the University of Utah found a sixfold increase in distraction-related accidents when texting.^[61]

Due to the increasing complexity of mobile phones, they are often more like mobile computers in their available uses. This has introduced additional difficulties for law enforcement officials when attempting to distinguish one usage from another in drivers using their devices. This is more apparent in countries which ban both handheld and hands-free usage, rather than those which ban handheld use only, as officials cannot easily tell which function of the mobile phone is being used simply by looking at the driver. This can lead to drivers being stopped for using their device illegally for a phone call when, in fact, they were using the device legally, for example, when using the phone’s incorporated controls for car stereo, GPS or satnav.

A 2010 study reviewed the incidence of mobile phone use while cycling and its effects on behaviour and safety.^[62] In 2013, a national survey in the US reported the number of drivers who reported using their cellphones to access the Internet while driving had risen to nearly one of four.^[63] A study conducted by the University of Vienna examined approaches for reducing inappropriate and problematic use of mobile phones, such as using mobile phones while driving.^[64]

Accidents involving a driver being distracted by talking on a mobile phone have begun to be prosecuted as negligence similar to speeding. In the United Kingdom, from 27 February 2007, motorists who are caught using a hand-held mobile phone while driving will have three penalty points added to their license in addition to the fine of £60.^[65] This increase was introduced to try to stem the increase in drivers ignoring the law.^[66] Japan prohibits all mobile phone use while driving, including use of hands-free devices. New Zealand has banned hand-held cell phone use since 1 November 2009. Many states in the United States have banned texting on cell phones while driving. Illinois became the 17th American state to enforce this law.^[67] As of July 2010, 30 states had banned texting while driving, with Kentucky becoming the most recent addition on 15 July.^[68]

Public Health Law Research maintains a list of distracted driving laws in the United States. This database of laws provides a comprehensive view of the provisions of laws that restrict the use of mobile communication devices while driving for all 50 states and the District of Columbia between 1992 when first law was passed, through 1 December 2010. The dataset contains information on 22 dichotomous, continuous or categorical variables including, for example, activities regulated (e.g., texting versus talking, hands-free versus handheld), targeted populations, and exemptions.^[69]

In 2010, an estimated 1500 pedestrians were injured in the US while using a cellphone and some jurisdictions have attempted to ban pedestrians from using their cellphones.^[70][71]

Health effects

The effect of mobile phone radiation on human health is the subject of recent^[when?] interest and study, as a result of the enormous increase in mobile phone usage throughout the world. Mobile phones use electromagnetic radiation in the microwave range, which some believe may be harmful to human health. A large body of research exists, both epidemiological and experimental, in non-human animals and in humans. The majority of this research shows no definite causative relationship between exposure to mobile phones and harmful biological effects in humans. This is often paraphrased simply as the balance of evidence showing no harm to humans from mobile phones, although a significant number of individual studies do suggest such a relationship, or are inconclusive. Other digital wireless systems, such as data communication networks, produce similar radiation.^{[citation needed]}

On 31 May 2011, the World Health Organization stated that mobile phone use may possibly represent a long-term health risk,^[72][73] classifying mobile phone radiation as «possibly carcinogenic to humans» after a team of scientists reviewed studies on mobile phone safety.^[74] The mobile phone is in category 2B, which ranks it alongside coffee and other possibly carcinogenic substances.^[75][76]

Some recent^[when?] studies have found an association between mobile phone use and certain kinds of brain and salivary gland tumors. Lennart Hardell and other authors of a 2009 meta-analysis of 11 studies from peer-reviewed journals concluded that cell phone usage for at least ten years «approximately doubles the risk of being diagnosed with a brain tumor on the same (‘ipsilateral’) side of the head as that preferred for cell phone use».^[77]

One study of past mobile phone use cited in the report showed a «40% increased risk for gliomas (brain cancer) in the highest category of heavy users (reported average: 30 minutes per day over a 10‐year period)».^[78] This is a reversal of the study’s prior position that cancer was unlikely to be caused by cellular phones or their base stations and that reviews had found no convincing evidence for other health effects.^[73][79] However, a study published 24 March 2012, in the British Medical Journal questioned these estimates because the increase in brain cancers has not paralleled the increase in mobile phone use.^[80] Certain countries, including France, have warned against the use of mobile phones by minors in particular, due to health risk uncertainties.^[81] Mobile pollution by transmitting electromagnetic waves can be decreased up to 90% by adopting the circuit as designed in mobile phone and mobile exchange.^[82]

In May 2016, preliminary findings of a long-term study by the U.S. government suggested that radio-frequency (RF) radiation, the type emitted by cell phones, can cause cancer.^[83][84]

Educational impact

A study by the London School of Economics found that banning mobile phones in schools could increase pupils’ academic performance, providing benefits equal to one extra week of schooling per year.^[85]

Electronic waste regulation

Studies have shown that around 40–50% of the environmental impact of mobile phones occurs during the manufacture of their printed wiring boards and integrated circuits.^[86]

The average user replaces their mobile phone every 11 to 18 months,^[87] and the discarded phones then contribute to electronic waste. Mobile phone manufacturers within Europe are subject to the WEEE directive, and Australia has introduced a mobile phone recycling scheme.^[88]

Apple Inc. had an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter called Liam specifically for recycling outdated or broken iPhones.^[89]

Theft

According to the Federal Communications Commission, one out of three robberies involve the theft of a cellular phone.^{[citation needed]} Police data in San Francisco show that half of all robberies in 2012 were thefts of cellular phones.^{[citation needed]} An online petition on Change.org, called Secure our Smartphones, urged smartphone manufacturers to install kill switches in their devices to make them unusable if stolen. The petition is part of a joint effort by New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman and San Francisco District Attorney George Gascón and was directed to the CEOs of the major smartphone manufacturers and telecommunication carriers.^[90] On 10 June 2013, Apple announced that it would install a «kill switch» on its next iPhone operating system, due to debut in October 2013.^[91]

All mobile phones have a unique identifier called IMEI. Anyone can report their phone as lost or stolen with their Telecom Carrier, and the IMEI would be blacklisted with a central registry.^[92] Telecom carriers, depending upon local regulation can or must implement blocking of blacklisted phones in their network. There are, however, a number of ways to circumvent a blacklist. One method is to send the phone to a country where the telecom carriers are not required to implement the blacklisting and sell it there,^[93] another involves altering the phone’s IMEI number.^[94] Even so, mobile phones typically have less value on the second-hand market if the phones original IMEI is blacklisted.

Conflict minerals

Demand for metals used in mobile phones and other electronics fuelled the Second Congo War, which claimed almost 5.5 million lives.^[95] In a 2012 news story, The Guardian reported: «In unsafe mines deep underground in eastern Congo, children are working to extract minerals essential for the electronics industry. The profits from the minerals finance the bloodiest conflict since the second world war; the war has lasted nearly 20 years and has recently flared up again. For the last 15 years, the Democratic Republic of the Congo has been a major source of natural resources for the mobile phone industry.»^[96] The company Fairphone has worked to develop a mobile phone that does not contain conflict minerals.^{[citation needed]}

Kosher phones

Due to concerns by the Orthodox Jewish rabbinate in Britain that texting by youths could waste time and lead to «immodest» communication, the rabbinate recommended that phones with text-messaging capability not be used by children; to address this, they gave their official approval to a brand of «Kosher» phones with no texting capabilities. Although these phones are intended to prevent immodesty, some vendors report good sales to adults who prefer the simplicity of the devices; other Orthodox Jews question the need for them.^[97]

In Israel, similar phones to kosher phones with restricted features exist to observe the sabbath; under Orthodox Judaism, the use of any electrical device is generally prohibited during this time, other than to save lives, or reduce the risk of death or similar needs. Such phones are approved for use by essential workers, such as health, security, and public service workers.^[98]

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

• «How Cell Phones Work» at HowStuffWorks
• «The Long Odyssey of the Cell Phone», 15 photos with captions from Time magazine
• Cell Phone, the ring heard around the world—a video documentary by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation

Первый в мире мобильный телефон

Считается, что первый мобильник придумали в Америке. Есть даже красивая история о том, как директор отдела мобильной связи компании Моторола Мартин Купер прогуливался по Манхэттену и, вытащив из кармана увесистую продолговатую коробку, похожую на кирпич, совершил звонок, чем несказанно удивил прохожих. Было это в 1973 году. Однако мало кто знает, что в СССР подобное изобретение появилось на шестнадцать лет раньше.

Фактически первый в мире мобильный телефон изобрел молодой советский радиоинженер Леонид Куприянович. В 1957 году он запатентовал свое изобретение — телефон ЛК-1. Это был опытный образец, и на наш искушенный современный взгляд его трудно было назвать мобильником. Весил он 3 килограмма, действовал в радиусе 20-30 км и мог работать без подзарядки до 30 часов. Носить с собой такой мобильник было весьма неудобно. Но на современников Леонида Куприяновича ЛК-1 произвел огромное впечатление.

В 1957 году в журнале «Наука и жизнь» была опубликована фотография изобретателя и его детища. Подумать о том, что телефон не только можно носить с собой, но и использовать, в то время могли, пожалуй, лишь фантасты.

Уже тогда был заложен принцип соединения, который используется в современных мобильниках. Телефон ЛК-1 был соединен с базовой станцией (АТР), которая принимала сигнал от одного мобильного телефона в проводную сеть, а затем передавала этот сигнал на другой мобильник. Частота передачи и приема для каждой трубки была разной. «Наука и жизнь» объясняла это просто: «Соединение ATP с любым абонентом происходит, как и у обычного телефона, только ее работой мы управляем на расстоянии».

В одном из номеров журнала «Юный техник» за 1957 год Куприянович писал, что телефон ЛК-1 может применяться в автомобилях, самолетах, кораблях, а пассажиры могут позвонить любому человеку, имеющему телефон. При использовании в машинах Куприянович предлагал использовать систему громкой связи, чтобы освободить руки – этакий «hands free».

Первый в мире мобильный телефон изобретатель предлагал широко распространить и сделать его частью повседневной жизни. Удивительно, но Куприянович описывал это так, словно побывал в нашем веке: «Взяв такой радиофон с собою, вы берете, по существу, обычный телефонный аппарат, но без проводов. Где бы вы не находились, вас всегда можно будет разыскать по телефону, стоит только с любого городского телефона (даже с телефона-автомата) набрать известный номер вашего радиофона. У вас в кармане раздается телефонный звонок, и вы начинаете разговор. В случае необходимости вы можете прямо из трамвая, троллейбуса, автобуса набрать любой городской телефонный номер, вызвать «Скорую помощь», пожарную или аварийную автомашины, связаться с домом…»

Уже через год Леонид Куприянович представляет новую, улучшенную модель своего изобретения. Она весила уже всего 500 грамм. По расчетам автора стоить она должна была 300-400 рублей. Однако модель по-прежнему не была удобна для ежедневного ношения с собой.

В 1961 году Куприянович разрабатывает первый в мире мобильный телефон, помещающийся в карман. Этот мобильник весил всего 70 грамм. Впервые аппарат был продемонстрирован корреспондентам АПН Ю. Рыбчинскому и Ю. Щербакову, которые дали высокую оценку изобретению и даже обмолвились, что модель подготовлена к серийному выпуску на одном из предприятий СССР. Однако этого не случилось, хотя в планах Куприяновича была разработка мобильника размером со спичечный коробок и дальностью действия до 200 км. Почему же этого не случилось?

Возможно, изобретение Куприяновича опередило свое время. Стоило оно тогда 300-400 рублей, что было тогда сопоставимо со стоимостью легкого мотоцикла или хорошего телевизора. Накопить простому советскому человеку, конечно, можно было, но нужно ли? Системы мобильной связи тогда еще только начинали разрабатываться, но это, как говорится, уже другая история.

Артем Шаповалов 

http://22-91.ru/statya/izobretenija-kuprijanovicha-pervyjj-v-mire-mobilnyjj-telefon/08.04.2014

От радиоволн…

Генрих Герц в 1888 году открыл способ создания и обнаружения электромагнитных радиоволн. В 1895 году 25 апреля русский учёный Александр Степанович Попов сделал доклад, посвящённый методу использования излученных электромагнитных волн для беспроводной передачи электрических сигналов, содержащих информацию. В марте 1896 года А.С. Попов провёл эксперимент, в котором на 250 метров передал радиограмму с двумя словами «Генрих Герц».

Через несколько лет, в Кронштадте под руководством учёного был налажен выпуск принимающей и передающей аппаратуры. Предприимчивый итальянец Гульельмо Маркони заинтересовался новым изобретением, подал патент в Англии и создал подобное устройство, чуть усложнив схемы А.С. Попова. Впоследствии, для военных нужд в Англии была организована компания «Маркони».

История беспроводной связи начинается в далёком 1901 году. В июле того года, английской компании «Маркони» удалось передать сигналы из станции Польдю в Англии в станцию Сент-Джонс в Ньюфаунленде. Сама компания была в начале двадцатого века единственной, кто осуществлял проводную междугороднюю и международную связь. Сигналы ежедневно передавались по кабелям, проложенными между США и Европой.

Но, вернёмся в Россию — в 1912 году под опекой правительства было образовано Русско-английское радиотелеграфное общество при сотрудничестве «Маркони», которая брала на себя обязательство устанавливать мощные ретрансляторные вышки на территории России. Через станции, установленные в Москве, Одессе, Петербурге и Варшаве проходило до двадцати тысяч слов в сутки.

Первой из самых мощных радиотелеграфных станций в начале прошлого века была точка в Северной Ирландии, её мощность составляла 500 кВт. Следующей стала станция в Кольтано, Италия, обеспечивающая соединения с США, Англией, Испанией и некоторыми колониями в Африке. Мощность итальянского чуда составляла одну тысячу кВт.

Английский магнат связи «Маркони» развернулся также в Египте, Южной Африке, Индии, Сингапуре, Испании, Чили, Греции, Дании, Бразилии, Турции и т.д. Беспроводная связь устанавливалась на частные яхты, торговые и военные суда – всего к прообразу сотовой связи было подключено больше четырехсот портов. В Англии весь военный флот был оснащён радиосвязью. Интересно отметить, что в Испании тогдашний король Альфонс лично открыл беспроводную вышку, связавшую полуостров с Болеварскими и Канарскими островами.

Стоимость переговоров между Лондоном и Нью-Йорком составляла 7,5 пенсов за пять минут. Спрос же на радиосвязь рос постоянно. Например, в Канаде и Бразилии, существовали газеты, получавшие информацию (о погоде и др.) целиком и полностью только за счёт беспроводной связи «Маркони». С помощью новой связи также стали передавать корреспонденцию, клиентам приходилось платить за каждое отправленное слово.

В 1921 году полиция города Детройта, США, получила возможность использовать мобильную связь в автомобилях. Использовались частоты в диапазоне около 2 МГц, связь была ненадёжной и постоянно возникали помехи.

Первые телефоны

Но, это лишь предпосылки. Настоящая история сотовой связи начинается в 1946 году в городе Сант-Луинс, США. Напомним, что сотовый телефон является дуплексной радиостанцией, ведущей обмен на разных частотах. В наличии принимающая часть и передающая, обеспечивающие связь с базовой станцией (БС) или ретранслятором. Канал БС-телефон называется downlink, а телефон-БС – uplink.

Компания AT&T Bell Laboratories создала радиотелефоны, устанавливающиеся в автомобилях. Стоит ли говорить, что вся аппаратура в начале была громоздкой и тяжёлой. Переключение абонента между каналами связи, в поисках свободного, осуществлялось вручную. Радиопередатчик позволял пассажирам или водителю связаться с АТС и таким образом совершить звонок. Надо упомянуть, что само телефонное общение было сложным – нельзя было и слушать и говорить одновременно. Так, чтобы донести своё сообщение до собеседника, нужно было нажать и удерживать кнопку телефонной трубки, а чтобы услышать ответ, кнопку надо было отпустить (зато, таким образом можно говорить сколько угодно, и знать, что вас никто не сможет перебить). Чтобы позвонить на радиотелефон, приходилось сначала звонить на телефонную станцию и затем сообщать номер оператору. Всего такая «первобытная» система связи поддерживала 23 пользователя одновременно и предназначалась для бизнесменов, переезжающих из Нью-Йорка в Бостон.

Вес аппарата-первооткрывателя сотовой связи составлял 30 кг и для работы он требовал подключения к электросети, поэтому становится ясно, почему первые в мире «мобильники» устанавливались в машинах. Но, инновационная идея Bell Laboratories с треском провалилась – слишком уж дорого выходило пользование услугами мобильной связи. Впрочем, зерно было посеяно. Для связи обычно выделяется диапазон с фиксированными частотными каналами. Если в одно время используются близкие по частоте каналы связи, то общаться с помощью телефонов практически невозможно. В это же время компания разработала систему ячеек или сот (cell – откуда и пошло сегодняшнее название сотовых телефонов).

Принцип действия сот прост. Ранее для общения выделялось всего несколько каналов, и пользователи могли создавать друг для друга не только помехи, но и прослушивать телефонные разговоры. Теперь же проезжающая машина, попадая в другую соту, могла использовать любую частоту, без опаски наткнуться на занятый эфир. То есть, чем больше ячеек, тем меньше помех и тем больше абонентов могут использовать сотовую связью.

Немного отвлечёмся от Америки и вспомним об СССР. У нас первая полностью автоматическая
дуплексная система профессиональной мобильной радиосвязи с подвижными объектами под названием «Алтай» заработала в конце 1950 годов. В течение долгого времени «Алтай» был единственным средством мобильным связи в стране.

Motorola – становление лидера

Как мы уже сказали, идея Bell Laboratories оказалось неудачной. Сервис для бизнесменов проработал с горем пополам пять лет и остановился. С этого момента интерес к радиотелефонной мобильной связи практически пропал. Наученные горьким опытом Bell Laboratories конкуренты не рвались за кажущимися вдалеке золотыми горами. В ряде городов США появлялись небольшие радиотелефонные сети, однако заметных прибылей они не приносили. Ещё одной из причин торможения была Федеральная Комиссия по Коммуникациям (Federal Communications Commissions (FСС), которой потребовался 21 год, чтобы официально разрешить широкомасштабное использование сотовых телефонов гражданскими лицами.

Всё началось в 1954 году, когда инженер Мартин Купер (Martin Cooper) пришёл в компанию Motorola, известную в то время как производитель радиоаппаратуры. Парень получил должность инженера и работал вполне успешно, получив через несколько лет повышение – Купер стал главой отдела по разработке портативных устройств. В 1967 году были созданы первые портативные рации, которые и дали толчок к созданию мобильного телефона.

Параллельно с Motorola, Bell также разрабатывала систему мобильной связи, однако, удача ей не улыбнулась. Всего Motorola затратила 15 лет и $ 100 миллионов на создание первой мобильной сети. Чтобы получить разрешение на использование радиочастот у FCC, необходимо было убедить комиссию в том, что мобильная связь действительно имеет будущее. Весной 1973, 3 апреля, сотрудники Motorola на вершине 50-этажного здания в Нью-Йорке установили первую базовую станцию. Станция могла одновременно поддерживать тридцать пользователей и предоставлять им доступ к городской телефонной сети.

Мартин Купер, под руководством которого и создавался этот проект, самолично сделал первый в мире звонок с мобильного телефона. Причём, он позвонил главе исследовательского отдела конкурентной Bell Laboratories, Джоэлю Энгелю. Общение конкурентов, несмотря на детскую выходку Купера, прошло вполне политкорректно, и Энгель поздравил Motorola с триумфом.

С этого времени Motorola становится первой в мире на рынке сотовых телефонов. Своё первенство компания удерживала немало времени, и сегодня продолжает входить в тройку лучших. Телефон, с которого звонил Мартин, назывался Dyna-Tac. Его размеры были 225х125х375 мм, а вес составлял немного нимало 1,15 кг, что, впрочем, намного меньше 30 кг устройств конца сороковых. С помощью аппарата можно было звонить и принимать сигнал, в наличии было 12 клавиш, из которых 10 были цифровых, а две другие начали разговор и прерывали звонок. Аккумуляторы Dyna-Tac позволяли работать в режиме разговора около получаса, а их зарядка требовала 10 часов.

Интересно отметить факт, оказавший влияние на всю историю сотовой связи. Одновременно с Motorola, Bell также хотела убедить FCC зарезервировать им радиочастоты. AT&T в то время продвигала ту же идею, что и в 1947 – телефонную связь в автомобилях. Правда, новые устройства весили 14 кг. Компания заявила комиссии, что через год количество машин, оснащённых сотовыми телефонами, составит 50,000, а в 2000 году и подавно – 900,000 (сегодня мобильники используют больше 2 миллиардов). Самое главное, что Bell сообщила FCC: «сотовые телефоны не имеют будущего, в то время как связь в автомобилях используется уже сегодня». Motorola необходимо было поторапливаться, и она в течении 90 дней смогла совершить первый в мире звонок с мобильного телефона.

А теперь перенесёмся на несколько лет вперёд и расскажем о том, что принесло Motorola успех. Конечно, кажется удивительным, что FCC одобрила использование частот для Motorola (Dyna-Tac использовался официально), ведь чиновники, даже в США, обычно медлительны и очень скептически настроены ко всему новому. А дело бы так…

В начале 80-х основатель Motorola, Пол Галвин, имел прямой контакт с вице-президентом Джорджем Бушем. Пол связался с Бушем и попросил его устроить для семилетней внучки экскурсию по Белому Дому. Буш согласился, и пригласил Пола и его внучку в правительство. Как только экскурсия подошла к концу, Пол задал следующий вопрос: «Почему бы тебе (Буш) не позвонить Барбаре?». Буш согласился и взял мобильник из рук Пола, чтобы позвонить своей жене: «Ты знаешь, что я сейчас делаю? – спросил возбуждённый Буш. – Я говорю по мобильному телефону!». Затем Буш запросто спросил Пола: «Рон видел это?». Глава компания сразу же понял, кого имел в виду его друг и ответил отрицательно.

В тот же день Рональд Рейган (президент США) и Пол встретились. Рейган сделал звонок по мобильнику и сразу же взял быка за рога: «Какой статус у этого устройства?». Пол ответил, что Motorola ждёт уже несколько лет одобрения от комиссии, но всё безрезультатно, и намекнул, что если будут тянуть и дальше, то, Япония может стать первой. Услышав ответ, Рейган долго не думал, и дальше было как в кино: президент США связался с помощником и сообщил ему буквально следующее: «Скажи управляющему FCC, что я хочу, чтобы устройство Motorola вышло официально». В итоге, в 1982 FCC признала, что сотовые телефоны безопасны, а в 1983 модель Dyna-Tас была одобрена официально.

С 1974 года FCC начала потихоньку выделять частоты для желающих создать коммерческие сети.Через полгода после Motorola, Bell представила свою версию мобильного телефона. Всего услугами компании в 1978 году пользовались 545 абонентов, и почти четыре тысячи стояли на очереди.

В 1979 году Япония заинтересовалась американской разработкой и начала проводить соответствующие испытания.

В 1982 году FCC официально одобрила технологию сотовой связи. В комиссию пришло более 600 заявок от компаний на получение соответствующих лицензий, причём две трети заявленных использовали оборудование от Motorola. Motorola была выбрана FCC и первой в мире стала выпускать сотовые телефоны. 10 лет потребовалось на то, чтобы мобильники вышли на рынок, для сравнения, микроволновкам для этого потребовалось 19 лет, а компьютерам – 15.

Motorola Dyna-TAC 8000x, представлявший пятое поколение Dyna-TAC, стал первым сотовым компании, попавшим на прилавок. Модель стоила около $ 10,000, однако уже через год её цена составила $ 4,000 – телефоны выходили на масштабный рынок. А в 1991 компания предлагала сотовые «всего» за $ 1,000.

Стандарты связи

В Европе же исследования по стандартам сотовой связи велись ещё с конца семидесятых, основной интерес проявляли Швеция, Финляндия, Исландия, Дания и Норвегия. Результатом исследований стал стандарт связи NMT-450 (Nordic Mobile Telephone), который предназначался для работы в диапазоне 450 МГц. NMT-450 стал использоваться в 1981 году в Саудовской Аравии, и лишь месяцем позже – в Европе. Различные варианты NMT-450 были взяты на вооружение в Австрии, Швейцарии, Голландии, Бельгии, странах Юго-Восточной Азии и Ближнего Востока.

В 1983 году, в Чикаго, начала работу сеть стандарта AMPS /Advanced Mobile Phone Service), который был разработан Bell Laboratories. В 1985, в Англии, был принят стандарт TACS (TotalAccess Communications System), являвшийся разновидностью американского AMPS. Через два года, из-за резко возросшего числа абонентов, был принят HTAC.S (Enhanced TACS), добавивший новые частоты и частично исправивший недостатки предшественника. Франция же стояла отдельно от всех и начала использовать собственный Radiocom-2000 с 1985 года.

Следующим стал NMT-900, использующий, соответственно, частоты 900 МГц диапазона. Новая версия стала применяться в 1986 году и позволила увеличить число абонентов и улучшила стабильность системы.

Конечно же, все описанные выше стандарты связи являются аналоговыми и тем самым первым поколением (1 G). Они осуществляют передачу информации с помощью частотной или фазовой модуляции, наподобие того, как работают обычные радио ретрансляторы. Недостатком является пресловутая перекрываемость каналов и создаваемые этим помехи, а также потеря сигнала на сложной местности или в окружении зданий.

Часть проблем можно было решить банальным расширением количества частот, предназначенных для сотовой связи, так, кстати, и поступили в Англии (HTAC.S). Однако прогресс не стоял на месте. Как известно, реальной проблемой в создании мобильных телефонов был их размер – пока не появились дешёвые и доступные микросхемы, создать сотовые было невозможно, ведь вес в один с лишним килограмм мало кого устраивал. Тоже самое было и в области связи, постепенно появлялась возможность создавать более совершенные передающие устройства. Организация по почте и электросвязи СЕРТ, объединяющая 26 стран, в 1982 году создала исследовательское подразделение Groupe Special Mobile, аббревиатура которого стала названием самого популярного стандарта сегодня. Новый стандарт связи разрабатывался в течение восьми лет, и впервые о нём было заявлено лишь в 1990 году – тогда были предложены спецификации стандарта. Вскоре, GSM стали расшифровывать как Global System for Mobile Communications.

Напомним, что GSM является цифровым стандартом сотовой связи, в нём реализованы временное разделение каналов (TDMA – множественный доступ с разделением по времени, когда для станции выделяются тайм-слоты по 0,577 для передачи 2×57 бит), шифрование сообщений, блочное кодирование, а также модуляция GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying). Поступающий в телефон аналоговый сигнал (речь) кодируется в цифровой и таким образом передаётся, а цифровая связь, как мы знаем, не искажает исходные данные, в отличие от аналоговой. Временное разделение каналов означает, что 8 абонентов могут использовать одновременно один канал связи. Это достигается за счёт временного разделения каналов, то есть аппараты абонентов по очереди связываются со станцией и обмениваются с ней данными.

Чуть раньше, в 1989 году английский Департамент торговли и промышленности, Department of Trade and Industry, выпустил документ, описывающий состояние радиосетей PCN (Persona! Communication Networks). По прогнозам сотрудников Департамента, к 2000 году до 15 % населения страны использовали бы мобильные телефоны. Похожий документ был опубликован и в США, там государство планировало к 2000 году осчастливить половину своего народа сотовой связью и для этого даже выделило диапазоны с частотами 1,9-2 ГГц и 900 МГц.

Стандартов же сотовой связи только прибавлялось, основа сегодняшнего рынка связи закладывалась пятнадцать лет назад. В 1990 в США был утверждёна спецификация IS-54 на национальном уровне. Это цифровой стандарт, больше известен как D-AMPS или ADC. В то же время начал зарождаться и современный CDMA, спрос на современный вариант которого в нашей стране стал появляться лишь недавно. Созданием CDMA занималась компания Qualcomm. CDMA является следующей ступенью после GSM, предоставляя более быструю и надёжную связь; также использует временное разделение каналов, однако более широкое, нежели GSM. Излучение сотовых с CDMA составляет всего 10 мВт, что сравнимо с обычным FM-радиоприёмником.

DSC-1800 (Digital Cellular System) появился в Европе в 1991 году, также создан на основе GSM, на него сразу же положила глаз Великобритания. DSC-1800 решал проблему переполнения соты, то есть случай, когда на одну базовую станцию приходилось слишком большое число абонентов, увеличивая ёмкость сети. В Японии в тот же год был создан собственный стандарт JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular), чем-то схожий с американским D-AMPS. Он был тут же утверждён к использованию Министерством связи страны.

Впереди всех в 1992 году оказалась Германия, развернув первую систему сотовой связи GSM. То есть, на практике стал применяться стандарт связи второго поколения (2 G). Первый в мире телефон с поддержкой GSM был создан компанией Benefon ESC. В 1993 году в США стал применяться CDMA (или IS-95) в диапазоне частот 800 МГц. В это же время в Англии начала свою работу сеть DCS-1800 One-2-One. Забегая вперёд, скажем, что в 1995 году в Гонконге заработала сеть CDMA.

В общем, стандартов связи было множество, и к середине девяностых большинство цивилизованных стран плавно переходили на цифровые спецификации. В России же, особенно во времена конца перестройки, казалось, что о сотовых телефонах думать не время. Однако в Санкт-Петербурге в 1991 году начала свою работу сотовая компании «Дельта Телеком».

ЗАО «Дельта Телеком» являлась первым оператором сотовой связи на российском рынке.. В то время пользоваться услугами связи могли себе позволить только состоятельные люди. Судите сами — сотовый телефон в России стоил 2000 $, подключение к сети – также 2000 $. Минута эфирного времени обходилась в один доллар. Компания предлагала модель Mobira — MD 59 NB2 производства Nokia весом 3 кг. Первым воспользовался новой услугой мэр города Анатолий Собчак — он позвонил по сотовому мэру Нью-Йорка. «Дельта Телеком» использовала аналоговый стандарт NMT-450i.

Сотовые телефоны – девяностые

Сотовая связь развивалась с каждым годом всё быстрее. На рынки приходили новые операторы и производители. Motorola, долгое время почивавшая на лаврах лидера, потеснилась. Nokia, тихая финская компания, в 1987 году представила свой первый мобильный телефон. Сегодня же она является лидером в индустрии, занимая почти треть рынка, следом за ней стоят Motorola и Samsung.

В 1993 году Nokia объявила о новом сервисе для передачи текстовых сообщений, а в 1994 году появился телефон Nokia 2110 под стандарт GSM с поддержкой SMS сообщений. Ericsson в 1994 году заменила гарнитуру для своего мобильного телефона модулем Bluetooth, этот год можно считать первым появлением набирающего сегодня обороты стандарта. Первый складной телефон был представлен в 1996 году и назывался Motorola StarTAC.

Развитие сетей CDMA в РФ было стимулировано приказом Министерства связи РФ № 18 от 24 февраля 1996 года. Первые CDMA развернулись в Челябинске, Москве и Санкт-Петербурге.

В 1998 году 20 мая Bluetooth принимают официально и создаётся альянс из компания Nokia, Ericsson, Toshiba, IBM и Intel. Название Bluetooth исходит к королю Дании Харальду Блетанду, сумевшему в 10 веке объединить Данию с Норвегией. Устройства Bluetooth — это радиопередатчики, связь между ними осуществляется на радиочастоте 2,4 Гц в нелицензированном диапазоне ISM на расстоянии от 10 м. Скорость передачи данных — до 723.2 кб/с. Во Франции Bluetooth используется на другой частоте. В то же время был создан первый смартфон — Qualcomm pdQ-800 (объём памяти 2 Мб, совместим с CDMA 1900 и аналоговым CDMA 800, чёрно-белый 2 битный экран).

В 2000 году Samsung отличилась первым в мире телефоном с возможностью проигрывания MP3 – это Samsung Uproar (стандарты CDMA 1900 и AMPS 800, встроенная флэш-память на 64 Мб). В 2001 году в США появились в продаже одноразовые бумажные мобильники, подобную идею одноразовых телефонов подхватил и Китай и другие страны Азии. Их стоимость должны была составлять от 5 до 10 долларов. Однако, такие сотовые не снискали популярности, основное их предназначение было выручать туристов (не нужно было переподключаться, а всего лишь заплатить символическую сумму) и тех, у кого в нужный момент сели аккумуляторы. В это же время в широкую продажу поступают гарнитуры Bluetooth.

Первые мобильные вирусы появились на рубеже нового тысячелетия. Первенец был испанского происхождения и назывался Timofonica. Червь через заражённые компьютеры рассылал через Интернет SMS на номера сотовых и отправлял себя по записной книжке e-mail.

И, снова, в 2001 году, Samsung метко бьёт в цель и выпускает телефон-раскладушку Samsung SGH-A400, предназначенный исключительно для женщин. С этого момента индустрия и клиенты признают, что телефон становится не в последнюю очередь модным аксессуаром.

2002 год отмечен появлением первого видеофона — Nokia 3650 (GSM, ОС – J2ME, разрешение передаваемого видео — 640×480) и телефона со встроенным модулем спутниковой системы местонахождения – GPS Kyocera 7135 Smartphone. Через год на прилавки вышла модель с интернет-браузером, это была модель Sony Ericsson T616.

Заключение

На сегодняшний день в России услугами сотовой связи пользуются около 102 440 000 человек. Развитие новых сетей идёт полным ходом, начинают использоваться и внедряться прогрессивные стандарты и спецификации третьего поколения. Компания NTT DoCoMo в этом году совместно с МТС ввела в нашей стране услугу i-mode, которая позволяет активно пользоваться Интернетом. I-mode очень популярен в Японии.

Не так давно, NTT DoCoMo продемонстрировала работу экспериментальной сети четвёртого поколения, сотовые телефоны будущего смогут передавать данные на скорости до 1 ГБ/c.

Самыми популярными операторами связи в РФ являются МТС и Билайн, идущие вровень, следом за ним стоит Мегафон. Количество пользователей МТС составляет 35,7 миллионов, в стройных рядах БиЛайна находятся 35,3 млн., а к Мегафону примкнуло 19,1 млн.

На мировом уровне сейчас используется около 2 миллиардов единиц мобильных телефонов. Из них больше двух третей подключены к стандарту GSM. Вторым по популярности идёт CDMA, остальные же представляют специфические стандарты, применяемые в основном в Азии. Сейчас в развитых странах сложилась ситуация «пресыщения», когда спрос перестаёт расти. Поэтому, основные надежды производители сейчас направляют на развивающиеся страны – это Индия, Китай, страны Африки, бывшего СССР и т.д.

Вот такая вот история.

История мобильника в картинках.

Сегодня уже трудно себе представить, как можно было жить без сотовых телефонов. Поневоле вспоминается старая песенка: « Мы оба были, вы у аптеки, а я в кино искала вас…». Сегодня такая песенка появиться бы уже не могла. И тем не менее, всего 10 лет назад мобильник был доступен лишь среднему классу, 15 лет назад это была роскошь, а 20 лет назад их и вовсе не было.

Первые образцы

Первый сотовый телефон.

Идею сотовой связи разработали специалисты американской корпорации AT&T Bell Labs. Первые разговоры на эту тему возникли в 1946 году, идея была обнародована в 1947. С этого момента в разных концах света начались работы по созданию нового устройства.

Надо отметить, что не смотря на все преимущества нового вида связи, от момента возникновения идеи до появления первого коммерческого образца прошло целых 37 лет. Все остальные технические новшества ХХ века внедрялись значительно быстрее.

Первый образчик такой связи 1946 года, представленный фирмой Bell в качестве идеи, был похож на гибрид обычного телефона и радиостанции, размещённой в багажнике машины. Радиостанция в багажнике весила 12 кг, пульт связи был в салоне, антенной приходилось дырявить крышу.

Радиостанция могла передать сигнал на АТС и таким способом дозвониться на обычный телефон. Позвонить на мобильный аппарат было куда сложнее: нужно было звонить на АТС, называть номер станции, чтобы там соединили вручную. Чтобы говорить, нужно было нажать на кнопку, а чтобы услышать ответ – отпустить её. Плюс к тому обилие помех и малый радиус действия.

Работала над мобильной связью и Motorola, конкурировавшая с Bell. Инженер Моторолы Мартин Купер тоже изобрёл аппарат, чей вес был около 1 килограмма, а длина 22 см. Держать такую «трубку» было затруднительно.

Не удивительно, что желающих пользоваться подобной «мобилой» было мало. Правда, в США в нескольких городах пытались наладить сеть радиотелефонов, но лет через пять работы заглохли. До 60-х годов не было желающих заниматься разработкой.

Мобильная связь в социалистическом лагере

Инженер Куприянович.

В Москве первый опытный образец переносного телефона ЛК-1 продемонстрировал инженер Л. И. Куприянович в 1957 году. Этот образец был тоже весьма внушителен: он весил 3 кг. Зато радиус действия достигал 30 км, а время работы станции без смены батарей — 20-30 часов.

Куприянович не остановился на достигнутом: В 1958 году он представил аппарат весом в 500 г, в 1961 году мир увидел аппарат весом всего 70 г. Радиус его действия был 80 км. Работы велись в Воронежском научно-исследовательском институте связи (ВНИИС).

Разработки Куприяновича взяли на вооружение болгары. В результате на московской выставке «Инфорга-65» появился болгарский комплект мобильной связи: базовая станция на 12 номеров и телефон. Размеры телефона примерно соответствовали телефонной трубке. Затем начался выпуск мобильных аппаратов РАТ-05 и АТРТ-05 с базовой станцией РАТЦ-10. Он использовался на стройках и на энергетических объектах.

Но в СССР работа над аппаратом тоже продолжалась в Москве, Молдавии, Белоруссии. Результатом стал «Алтай» — полнофункциональный прибор, предназначенный для автомобилей. В руках носить его было затруднительно из-за базовой станции и аккумуляторов. Однако машины «Скорой помощи», такси, большегрузные автомобили были оснащены этой связью.

Превращение «мобильной» связи в действительно мобильную

Аппарат «Алтай».

Соревнование между Bell и Motorola закончилось победой Моторолы: весной 1973 года злорадствующий Купер позвонил своим конкурентам с улицы по своей новой трубке, которую легко держал в руке. Это был первый звонок с сотового телефона, ознаменовавший начало новой эры. Но исследования и доработки продолжались ещё долгих 15лет.

В СССР в 70-е годы всё ещё использовался «Алтай», зато им было охвачено около 30 городов. 16-канальные аппараты работали в диапазоне 150 МГц. Был предусмотрен режим конференции. Набор номера осуществлялся сначала с помощью вращения диска, но вскоре применили кнопочный набор. Был установлен приоритет пользователей: пользователь с более высоким приоритетом мог прервать своим звонком разговор абонентов с меньшим приоритетом.

Коммерческие аппараты

1992 год. Телефон Motorola 3200.

Коммерческий мобильный телефон появился в США в 1983 году. Первой массовый выпуск освоила Моторола. Успех её аппаратов был ошеломителен, и к 1990-му году количество абонентов достигло 11 млн. К 1995 году их число выросло до 90,7 млн., а к 2003-му – 1,29 млрд.

В России первые сотовые телефоны появились в 1991 году. Трубка с подключением стоила 4000 долларов. Первый оператор со стандартом GSM пришёл к нам в 1994 году. Те телефоны были ещё довольно громоздкими, в карман не положишь. Некоторые состоятельные люди (а только им и были доступны мобильники) зачастую предпочитали держать при себе специального человека, который носил за ними аппарат.

К разработке и выпуску мобильных телефонов подключились многие фирмы. Например, Нокия в 1998 году выпустила трубку с поддержкой WAP Nokia 7110. Тогда же появился двухсимочный телефон и телефон с сенсорным дисплеем.

В настоящее время статистика утверждает, что мобильный телефон имеют 9 человек на Земле из 10.

Современные смартфоны.